公开(公告)号：US07411233B2

公开(公告)日：2008-08-12

申请号：US10229955

申请日：2002-08-27

申请人： Calvin Chao ,  Tzu-Chiang Hsieh ,  Michael Engelmann ,  Milam Pender

发明人： Calvin Chao ,  Tzu-Chiang Hsieh ,  Michael Engelmann ,  Milam Pender

IPC分类号： H01L31/036 ,  H01L31/113 ,  H01L31/00 ,  H01L31/075

CPC分类号： H04N5/37452 ,  H01L27/14632 ,  H01L27/14645 ,  H01L27/14667 ,  H04N5/3575 ,  H04N5/359 ,  H04N5/363

摘要： An active pixel sensor for producing images from electron-hole producing radiation includes a crystalline semiconductor substrate having an array of electrically conductive diffusion regions, an interlayer dielectric (ILD) layer formed over the crystalline semiconductor substrate and comprising an array of contact electrodes, and an interconnect structure formed over the ILD layer, wherein the interconnect structure includes at least one layer comprising an array of conductive vias. An array of patterned metal pads is formed over the interconnect structure and are electrically connected to an array of charge collecting pixel electrodes. A radiation absorbing structure includes a photoconductive N-I-B-P photodiode layer formed over the interconnect structure, and a surface electrode layer establishes an electrical field across the radiation absorbing structure and between the surface electrode layer and each of the array of charge collecting pixel electrodes. An array measurement circuit measures the charge collected and outputs pixel data defining an image.

摘要翻译： 用于从电子空穴产生辐射产生图像的有源像素传感器包括具有导电扩散区阵列的晶体半导体衬底，形成在晶体半导体衬底上并包括接触电极阵列的层间电介质（ILD）层，以及 所述互连结构形成在所述ILD层上，其中所述互连结构包括包括导电通孔阵列的至少一个层。 图案化的金属焊盘的阵列形成在互连结构上并且电连接到电荷收集像素电极的阵列。 辐射吸收结构包括在互连结构上形成的光导N-I-B-P光电二极管层，并且表面电极层在辐射吸收结构之间以及表面电极层和电荷收集像素电极阵列中的每一个之间建立电场。 阵列测量电路测量所收集的电荷并输出定义图像的像素数据。

公开(公告)号：US06809358B2

公开(公告)日：2004-10-26

申请号：US10648129

申请日：2003-08-26

申请人： Tzu-Chiang Hsieh ,  Calvin Chao

发明人： Tzu-Chiang Hsieh ,  Calvin Chao

IPC分类号： H01L31062

CPC分类号： H04N5/378 ,  H01L27/14609 ,  H01L27/14621 ,  H01L27/1463 ,  H01L27/14632 ,  H01L27/14636 ,  H01L27/14643 ,  H01L27/14645 ,  H01L27/14687 ,  H01L31/1055 ,  H01L31/113 ,  H04N5/2351 ,  H04N5/2353 ,  H04N5/365 ,  H04N5/37455

摘要： A MOS or CMOS based photoconductor on active pixel image sensor. Thin layers of semi-conductor material, doped to PIN or NIP photoconducting layers, located above MOS and/or CMOS pixel circuits produce an array of layered photodiodes. Positive and negative charges produced in the layered photodiodes are collected and stored as electrical charges in the MOS and/or CMOS pixel circuits. The present invention also provides additional MOS or CMOS circuits for reading out the charges and for converting the charges into images. With the layered photodiode of each pixel fabricated as continuous layers of charge generating material on top of the MOS and/or CMOS pixel circuits, extremely small pixels are possible with almost 100 percent packing factors. MOS and CMOS fabrication techniques permit sensor fabrication at very low costs. In preferred embodiments all of the sensor circuits are incorporated on or in a single crystalline substrate along with the sensor pixel circuits. Techniques are disclosed for tailoring the spectral response of the sensor for particular applications.

公开(公告)号：US06730900B2

公开(公告)日：2004-05-04

申请号：US10371618

申请日：2003-02-22

申请人： Tzu-Chiang Hsish ,  Calvin Chao

发明人： Tzu-Chiang Hsish ,  Calvin Chao

IPC分类号： H01L2700

CPC分类号： H04N5/335 ,  H01L27/14609 ,  H01L27/14621 ,  H01L27/14634 ,  H01L27/14645 ,  H01L31/03762 ,  H01L31/1055 ,  H04N5/2257 ,  H04N9/045 ,  H04N2209/045 ,  Y02E10/548

摘要： A novel MOS or CMOS based active sensor array for producing electronic images from electron-hole producing light. Each pixel of the array includes a layered photodiode for converting the electron-hole producing light into electrical charges and MOS and/or CMOS pixel circuits located under the layered photodiodes for collecting the charges. The present invention also provides additional MOS or CMOS circuits in and/or on the same crystalline substrate for converting the collected charges into images and manipulating image data. The layered photodiode of each pixel is fabricated as continuous layers of charge generating material on top of the MOS and/or CMOS pixel circuits so that extremely small pixels are possible with almost 100 percent packing factors. In a preferred embodiment the sensor is a 0.3 mega pixel (3.2 mm×2.4 mm, 640×480) array of 5 micron square pixels which is compatible with a lens of {fraction (1/4.5)} inch optical format. In a preferred embodiment the sensor along with focusing optics is incorporated into a cellular phone camera or a camera attachment the cellular phone to permit transmission of visual images along with the voice communication.

摘要翻译： 一种用于从电子孔产生光产生电子图像的新颖的基于MOS或CMOS的有源传感器阵列。 阵列的每个像素包括用于将产生电子 - 空穴的光转换成电荷的层状光电二极管，以及位于层状光电二极管下方的用于收集电荷的MOS和/或CMOS像素电路。 本发明还提供了在同一结晶衬底中和/或上的附加MOS或CMOS电路，用于将收集的电荷转换为图像和操纵图像数据。 每个像素的层状光电二极管被制造为在MOS和/或CMOS像素电路的顶部上的电荷产生材料的连续层，使得极小的像素可能具有几乎100％的包装因子。 在优选实施例中，传感器是5微米方形像素的0.3万像素（3.2mm×2.4mm，640×480）阵列，其与{分数（1/4英寸光学格式）的透镜兼容。在优选实施例中，传感器沿 聚焦光学器件被结合到蜂窝电话摄像机或照相机附件中，以便允许传输视觉图像以及语音通信。

公开(公告)号：US07276749B2

公开(公告)日：2007-10-02

申请号：US11361426

申请日：2006-02-24

申请人： Peter Martin ,  Michael G. Engelman ,  Calvin Chao ,  Teu Chiang Hsieh ,  Milan Pender

发明人： Peter Martin ,  Michael G. Engelman ,  Calvin Chao ,  Teu Chiang Hsieh ,  Milan Pender

IPC分类号： H01L31/062

CPC分类号： H01L31/1808 ,  H01L27/14632 ,  H01L27/14643 ,  H01L27/14687 ,  H01L31/0322 ,  H01L31/03682 ,  H01L31/105 ,  H01L31/1055 ,  Y02E10/541 ,  Y02E10/546

摘要： A microcrystalline germanium image sensor array. The array includes a number of pixel circuits fabricated in or on a substrate. Each pixel circuit comprises a charge collecting electrode for collecting electrical charges and a readout means for reading out the charges collected by the charge collecting electrode. A photodiode layer of charge generating material located above the pixel circuits convert electromagnetic radiation into electrical charges. This photodiode layer includes microcrystalline germanium and defines at least an n-layer, and i-layer and a p-layer. The sensor array also includes and a surface electrode in the form of a grid or thin transparent layer located above the layer of charge generating material. The sensor is especially useful for imaging in visible and near infrared spectral regions of the electromagnetic spectrum and provides imaging with starlight illumination.

摘要翻译： 微晶锗图像传感器阵列。 阵列包括在衬底中或衬底上制造的多个像素电路。 每个像素电路包括用于收集电荷的电荷收集电极和用于读出由电荷收集电极收集的电荷的读出装置。 位于像素电路上方的电荷产生材料的光电二极管层将电磁辐射转换成电荷。 该光电二极管层包括微晶锗并且至少限定n层，i层和p层。 传感器阵列还包括位于电荷产生材料层之上的格栅或薄透明层形式的表面电极。 该传感器特别适用于在电磁光谱的可见光和近红外光谱区域成像，并提供具有星光照明的成像。

公开(公告)号：US07436038B2

公开(公告)日：2008-10-14

申请号：US10785833

申请日：2004-02-23

申请人： Michael G. Engelmann ,  Calvin Chao ,  Tzu-Chiang Hsieh ,  Peter Martin ,  Milam Pender

发明人： Michael G. Engelmann ,  Calvin Chao ,  Tzu-Chiang Hsieh ,  Peter Martin ,  Milam Pender

IPC分类号： H01L31/00

CPC分类号： G01J5/02 ,  G01J5/024 ,  G01J5/026 ,  G01J5/04 ,  G01J5/046 ,  G01J5/22 ,  G01J5/52 ,  G01J2005/0077 ,  H01L27/14609 ,  H01L27/14621 ,  H01L27/1463 ,  H01L27/14632 ,  H01L27/14636 ,  H01L27/14643 ,  H01L27/14645 ,  H01L27/14649 ,  H01L27/14687 ,  H01L27/14689 ,  H01L27/14692 ,  H01L31/03685 ,  H01L31/03687 ,  H01L31/1055 ,  H01L31/109 ,  H01L31/113 ,  H04N5/2351 ,  H04N5/2353 ,  H04N5/33 ,  H04N5/332 ,  H04N5/365 ,  H04N5/3651 ,  H04N5/374 ,  H04N5/37455 ,  H04N5/378 ,  Y02E10/545 ,  Y02E10/548

摘要： A MOS or CMOS sensor for high performance imaging in broad spectral ranges including portions of the infrared spectral band. These broad spectral ranges may also include portions or all of the visible spectrum, therefore the sensor has both daylight and night vision capabilities. The sensor includes a continuous multi-layer photodiode structure on a many pixel MOS or CMOS readout array where the photodiode structure is chosen to include responses in the near infrared spectral ranges. A preferred embodiment incorporates a microcrystalline copper indium diselenide/cadmium sulfide photodiode structure on a CMOS readout array. An alternate preferred embodiment incorporates a microcrystalline silicon germanium photodiode structure on a CMOS readout array. Each of these embodiments provides night vision with image performance that greatly surpasses the GEN III night vision technology in terms of enhanced sensitivity, pixel size and pixel count. Further advantages of the invention include low electrical bias voltages, low power consumption, compact packaging, and radiation hardness. In special preferred embodiments CMOS stitching technology is used to provide multi-million pixel focal plane array sensors. One embodiments of the invention made without stitching is a two-million pixel sensor. Other preferred embodiments available using stitching techniques include sensors with 250 million (or more) pixels fabricated on a single wafer. A particular application of these very high pixel count sensors is as a focal plane array for a rapid beam steering telescope in a low earth orbit satellite useful for tracking over a 1500-meter wide track with a resolution of 0.3 meter.

摘要翻译： 一种用于在宽光谱范围内进行高性能成像的MOS或CMOS传感器，包括红外光谱带的部分。 这些宽光谱范围还可以包括可见光谱的部分或全部，因此传感器具有日光和夜视能力。 该传感器包括在多个像素MOS或CMOS读出阵列上的连续多层光电二极管结构，其中光电二极管结构被选择为包括在近红外光谱范围内的响应。 优选实施例在CMOS读出阵列上结合微晶铜铟二硒化物/硫化镉光电二极管结构。 替代的优选实施例在CMOS读出阵列上结合了微晶硅锗光电二极管结构。 这些实施例中的每一个为增强的灵敏度，像素尺寸和像素数量提供了大大超过GEN III夜视技术的图像性能的夜视。 本发明的另外的优点包括低偏置电压，低功耗，紧凑的封装和辐射硬度。 在特别优选实施例中，CMOS拼接技术用于提供数百万像素焦平面阵列传感器。 没有拼接的本发明的一个实施例是200万像素传感器。 使用缝合技术可获得的其它优选实施例包括在单个晶片上制造的具有2.5亿（或更多）像素的传感器。 这些非常高的像素数传感器的特定应用是用于在低地球轨道卫星中的快速波束转向望远镜的焦平面阵列，其用于在分辨率为0.3米的1500米宽的轨道上进行跟踪。

公开(公告)号：US20050104089A1

公开(公告)日：2005-05-19

申请号：US10785833

申请日：2004-02-23

申请人： Michael Engelmann ,  Calvin Chao ,  Tzu-Chiang Hsieh ,  Peter Martin ,  Milam Pender

发明人： Michael Engelmann ,  Calvin Chao ,  Tzu-Chiang Hsieh ,  Peter Martin ,  Milam Pender

IPC分类号： H01L27/00 ,  H01L27/10 ,  H01L27/146 ,  H01L29/76 ,  H01L31/00 ,  H01L31/062 ,  H01L31/105 ,  H01L31/113

CPC分类号： G01J5/02 ,  G01J5/024 ,  G01J5/026 ,  G01J5/04 ,  G01J5/046 ,  G01J5/22 ,  G01J5/52 ,  G01J2005/0077 ,  H01L27/14609 ,  H01L27/14621 ,  H01L27/1463 ,  H01L27/14632 ,  H01L27/14636 ,  H01L27/14643 ,  H01L27/14645 ,  H01L27/14649 ,  H01L27/14687 ,  H01L27/14689 ,  H01L27/14692 ,  H01L31/03685 ,  H01L31/03687 ,  H01L31/1055 ,  H01L31/109 ,  H01L31/113 ,  H04N5/2351 ,  H04N5/2353 ,  H04N5/33 ,  H04N5/332 ,  H04N5/365 ,  H04N5/3651 ,  H04N5/374 ,  H04N5/37455 ,  H04N5/378 ,  Y02E10/545 ,  Y02E10/548

摘要： A MOS or CMOS sensor for high performance imaging in broad spectral ranges including portions of the infrared spectral band. These broad spectral ranges may also include portions or all of the visible spectrum, therefore the sensor has both daylight and night vision capabilities. The sensor includes a continuous multi-layer photodiode structure on a many pixel MOS or CMOS readout array where the photodiode structure is chosen to include responses in the near infrared spectral ranges. A preferred embodiment incorporates a microcrystalline copper indium diselenide/cadmium sulfide photodiode structure on a CMOS readout array. An alternate preferred embodiment incorporates a microcrystalline silicon germanium photodiode structure on a CMOS readout array. Each of these embodiments provides night vision with image performance that greatly surpasses the GEN III night vision technology in terms of enhanced sensitivity, pixel size and pixel count. Further advantages of the invention include low electrical bias voltages, low power consumption, compact packaging, and radiation hardness. In special preferred embodiments CMOS stitching technology is used to provide multi-million pixel focal plane array sensors. One embodiments of the invention made without stitching is a two-million pixel sensor. Other preferred embodiments available using stitching techniques include sensors with 250 million (or more) pixels fabricated on a single wafer. A particular application of these very high pixel count sensors is as a focal plane array for a rapid beam steering telescope in a low earth orbit satellite useful for tracking over a 1500-meter wide track with a resolution of 0.3 meter.

摘要翻译： 一种用于在宽光谱范围内进行高性能成像的MOS或CMOS传感器，包括红外光谱带的部分。 这些宽光谱范围还可以包括可见光谱的部分或全部，因此传感器具有日光和夜视能力。 该传感器包括在多个像素MOS或CMOS读出阵列上的连续多层光电二极管结构，其中光电二极管结构被选择为包括在近红外光谱范围内的响应。 优选实施例在CMOS读出阵列上结合微晶铜铟二硒化物/硫化镉光电二极管结构。 替代的优选实施例在CMOS读出阵列上结合了微晶硅锗光电二极管结构。 这些实施例中的每一个为增强的灵敏度，像素尺寸和像素数量提供了大大超过GEN III夜视技术的图像性能的夜视。 本发明的另外的优点包括低偏置电压，低功耗，紧凑的封装和辐射硬度。 在特别优选实施例中，CMOS拼接技术用于提供数百万像素焦平面阵列传感器。 没有拼接的本发明的一个实施例是200万像素传感器。 使用缝合技术可获得的其它优选实施例包括在单个晶片上制造的具有2.5亿（或更多）像素的传感器。 这些非常高的像素数传感器的特定应用是用于在低地球轨道卫星中的快速波束转向望远镜的焦平面阵列，其用于在分辨率为0.3米的1500米宽的轨道上进行跟踪。

公开(公告)号：US06798033B2

公开(公告)日：2004-09-28

申请号：US10229956

申请日：2002-08-27

申请人： Calvin Chao ,  Tzu-Chiang Hsieh ,  Michael Engelmann ,  Milam Pender

发明人： Calvin Chao ,  Tzu-Chiang Hsieh ,  Michael Engelmann ,  Milam Pender

IPC分类号： H01L3100

CPC分类号： H01L27/14632 ,  H01L27/14643

摘要： An active pixel sensor for producing images from electron-hole producing radiation includes a crystalline semiconductor substrate having an array of electrically conductive diffusion regions, an interlayer dielectric (ILD) layer formed over the crystalline semiconductor substrate and comprising an array of contact electrodes, and an interconnect structure formed over the ILD layer, wherein the interconnect structure includes at least one layer comprising an array of conductive vias. An array of patterned metal pads is formed over the interconnect structure and are electrically connected to an array of charge collecting pixel electrodes. A radiation absorbing structure includes a photoconductive N-I-B-P photodiode layer formed over the interconnect structure, and a surface electrode layer establishes an electrical field across the radiation absorbing structure and between the surface electrode layer and each of the array of charge collecting pixel electrodes. An array measurement circuit measures the charge collected and outputs pixel data defining an image.

摘要翻译： 用于从电子空穴产生辐射产生图像的有源像素传感器包括具有导电扩散区阵列的晶体半导体衬底，形成在晶体半导体衬底上并包括接触电极阵列的层间电介质（ILD）层，以及 所述互连结构形成在所述ILD层上，其中所述互连结构包括包括导电通孔阵列的至少一个层。 图案化的金属焊盘的阵列形成在互连结构上并且电连接到电荷收集像素电极的阵列。 辐射吸收结构包括在互连结构上形成的光导N-I-B-P光电二极管层，并且表面电极层在辐射吸收结构之间以及表面电极层和电荷收集像素电极阵列中的每一个之间建立电场。 阵列测量电路测量所收集的电荷并输出定义图像的像素数据。

公开(公告)号：US20060267054A1

公开(公告)日：2006-11-30

申请号：US11361426

申请日：2006-02-24

申请人： Peter Martin ,  Michael Engelman ,  Calvin Chao ,  Teu Hsieh ,  Milan Pender

发明人： Peter Martin ,  Michael Engelman ,  Calvin Chao ,  Teu Hsieh ,  Milan Pender

IPC分类号： H01L31/113

CPC分类号： H01L31/1808 ,  H01L27/14632 ,  H01L27/14643 ,  H01L27/14687 ,  H01L31/0322 ,  H01L31/03682 ,  H01L31/105 ,  H01L31/1055 ,  Y02E10/541 ,  Y02E10/546

摘要： A microcrystalline germanium image sensor array. The array includes a number of pixel circuits fabricated in or on a substrate. Each pixel circuit comprises a charge collecting electrode for collecting electrical charges and a readout means for reading out the charges collected by the charge collecting electrode. A photodiode layer of charge generating material located above the pixel circuits convert electromagnetic radiation into electrical charges. This photodiode layer includes microcrystalline germanium and defines at least an n-layer, and i-layer and a p-layer. The sensor array also includes and a surface electrode in the form of a grid or thin transparent layer located above the layer of charge generating material. The sensor is especially useful for imaging in visible and near infrared spectral regions of the electromagnetic spectrum and provides imaging with starlight illumination.

摘要翻译： 微晶锗图像传感器阵列。 阵列包括在衬底中或衬底上制造的多个像素电路。 每个像素电路包括用于收集电荷的电荷收集电极和用于读出由电荷收集电极收集的电荷的读出装置。 位于像素电路上方的电荷产生材料的光电二极管层将电磁辐射转换成电荷。 该光电二极管层包括微晶锗并且至少限定n层，i层和p层。 传感器阵列还包括位于电荷产生材料层之上的格栅或薄透明层形式的表面电极。 该传感器特别适用于在电磁光谱的可见光和近红外光谱区域成像，并提供具有星光照明的成像。

公开(公告)号：US20060164533A1

公开(公告)日：2006-07-27

申请号：US11389356

申请日：2006-03-24

申请人： Tzu-Chiang Hsieh ,  Calvin Chao

发明人： Tzu-Chiang Hsieh ,  Calvin Chao

IPC分类号： H04N3/14 ,  H04N5/335

CPC分类号： H04N5/3765 ,  H01L27/14632 ,  H04N5/2257 ,  H04N5/2353 ,  H04N5/353 ,  H04N5/374

摘要： An electronic imaging sensor. The sensor includes an array of photo-sensing pixel elements for producing image frames. Each pixel element defines a photo-sensing region and includes a charge collecting element for collecting electrical charges produced in the photo-sensing region, and a charge storage element for the storage of the collected charges. The sensor also includes charge sensing elements for sensing the collected charges, and charge-to-signal conversion elements. The sensor also includes timing elements for controlling the pixel circuits to produce image frames at a predetermined normal frame rate based on a master clock signal (such as 12 MHz or 10 MHz). This predetermined normal frame rate which may be a video rate (such as about 30 frames per second or 25 frames per second) establishes a normal maximum per frame exposure time. The sensor includes circuits (based on prior art techniques) for adjusting the per frame exposure time (normally based on ambient light levels) and novel frame rate adjusting features for reducing the frame rate below the predetermined normal frame rate, without changing the master clock signal, to permit per frame exposure times above the normal maximum exposure time. This permits good exposures even in very low light levels. (There is an obvious compromise of lowering of the frame rate in conditions of very low light levels, but in most cases this is preferable to inadequate exposure.) These adjustments can be automatic or manual.

摘要翻译： 电子成像传感器。 传感器包括用于产生图像帧的光敏像素元件阵列。 每个像素元件限定光敏区域，并且包括用于收集在光敏区域中产生的电荷的电荷收集元件和用于存储所收集的电荷的电荷存储元件。 传感器还包括用于感测收集的电荷的电荷感测元件以及电荷到信号转换元件。 传感器还包括用于控制像素电路以基于主时钟信号（例如12MHz或10MHz）以预定正常帧速率产生图像帧的定时元件。 该预定的正常帧速率可以是视频速率（例如每秒约30帧或每秒25帧）建立每帧曝光时间的正常最大值。 该传感器包括用于调整每帧曝光时间（通常基于环境光水平）和用于将帧速率降低到低于预定正常帧速率的新帧速率调整特征的电路（基于现有技术），而不改变主时钟信号 允许每帧曝光时间高于正常最大曝光时间。 即使在非常低的光照水平下，这也允许良好的曝光。 （在非常低的光照条件下，降低帧速率有一个明显的妥协，但在大多数情况下，这比曝光不足是好的。）这些调整可以是自动的或手动的。

公开(公告)号：US20050012840A1

公开(公告)日：2005-01-20

申请号：US10921387

申请日：2004-08-18

申请人： Tzu-Chiang Hsieh ,  Calvin Chao

发明人： Tzu-Chiang Hsieh ,  Calvin Chao

IPC分类号： H04N5/335

CPC分类号： H04N5/335 ,  H01L27/14609 ,  H01L27/14621 ,  H01L27/14623 ,  H01L27/14632 ,  H01L27/14667

摘要： The present invention provides a MOS or CMOS based active sensor array for producing electronic images from charge producing light. Each pixel of the array includes a layered photodiode for converting the light into electrical charges and MOS and/or CMOS pixel circuits located under the layered photodiodes for collecting the charges. The present invention also provides additional MOS or CMOS circuits in and/or on the same crystalline substrate for processing the collected charges for the purposes of producing images. The layered photodiode of each pixel is fabricated as continuous layers of charge generating material on top of the MOS and/or CMOS pixel circuits so that extremely small pixels are possible with almost 100 percent packing factors. In preferred embodiments, pixel crosstalk is minimized by careful design of the bottom photodiode layer with the addition of carbon to the doped amorphous silicon N or P layer to increase the electrical resistivity. The increased electrical resistivity also helps avoid adverse electrical effects at the edge of the pixel array where the pixel electrodes may be in close proximity to the material used for a top transparent electrode layer.

摘要翻译： 本发明提供一种用于从电荷产生光产生电子图像的基于MOS或CMOS的有源传感器阵列。 阵列的每个像素包括用于将光转换成电荷的层状光电二极管，以及位于层状光电二极管下方的用于收集电荷的MOS和/或CMOS像素电路。 本发明还在相同的晶体衬底内和/或上同时提供用于处理所收集的电荷以用于产生图像的附加MOS或CMOS电路。 每个像素的层状光电二极管被制造为在MOS和/或CMOS像素电路的顶部上的电荷产生材料的连续层，使得极小的像素可能具有几乎100％的包装因子。 在优选实施例中，通过仔细设计底部光电二极管层，通过向掺杂的非晶硅N或P层添加碳以增加电阻率，使像素串扰最小化。 增加的电阻率还有助于避免像素阵列的边缘处的不利的电效应，其中像素电极可能靠近用于顶部透明电极层的材料。