A metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) optical modulator including a doped semiconductor layer having a waveguide structure, a dielectric layer disposed over the waveguide structure of the doped semiconductor layer, a gate region disposed over the dielectric layer, wherein the gate region comprises a transparent electrically conductive material having a refractive index lower than that of silicon, and a metal contact disposed over the gate region. The metal contact, the gate region, and the waveguide structure of the doped semiconductor layer may be vertically aligned with each other.