Heat storage devices for solar steam generation, including recirculation and desalination, and associated systems and methods are disclosed. A representative method includes directing a high temperature working fluid (a) from a thermal storage device to a solar field to heat the high temperature working fluid, and (b) back to the thermal storage device. The method can further include directing a first portion of the high temperature working fluid from the thermal storage device through a first branch of a high temperature working fluid loop to transfer heat to a process fluid at a first temperature. A second portion of the high temperature working fluid is directed from the thermal storage device through a second branch of the high temperature working fluid loop, in parallel with the first branch, to transfer heat to the process fluid at a second temperature less than the first temperature.